Concept and Importance of Wetlands
Wetlands are transitional ecosystems between terrestrial and aquatic environments where water is present permanently or seasonally. Recognized under the Ramsar Convention (1971), they support immense biodiversity, regulate hydrology, and sustain millions of livelihoods. In India, wetlands cover about 4.7% of the geographical area.
Ecological Definition
Wetlands are ecosystems where water saturation determines soil properties, vegetation types, and ecological processes. Hydrophytes dominate these regions.
Key Characteristics
• Waterlogged or saturated soils • Specialized hydrophytic vegetation • High nutrient exchange and productivity • Transitional nature between land and water
Types of Wetlands
Natural: Mangroves, lakes, floodplains, peatlands, high-altitude wetlands.
Man-made: Irrigation tanks, rice paddies, urban wetlands, reservoirs.
Ecological Importance
Wetlands are biodiversity hotspots, carbon sinks, hydrological regulators, and natural water purifiers.
Example: East Kolkata Wetlands treat 900 million litres of wastewater daily.
Economic Importance
Supports fisheries, aquaculture, agriculture, tourism, and ecosystem service valuation.
Example: Chilika Lake attracts over 2 lakh tourists annually.
Social & Cultural Importance
Wetlands support traditional knowledge systems, cultural values, rituals, and local nutrition.
Example: Apatani rice–fish farming system.
Threats to Wetlands
Urbanization, pollution, hydrological alterations, climate change, invasive species.
Example: Bengaluru wetlands face severe encroachment.
Conservation Efforts
Wetlands Rules 2017, Ramsar sites, mapping, community-driven conservation, nature-based solutions.
Example: India now has 94 Ramsar Sites.(as of November 2025)
Hydrological & Climate Functions
Recharge groundwater, regulate flow, buffer floods, store carbon, stabilize climate.
Example: Mangroves protect coasts against cyclones.
Classification of Wetlands in India
India’s wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems, regulating climate, supporting biodiversity, and sustaining livelihoods. Broadly, they are categorized as Coastal Wetlands and Inland Wetlands, based on hydrology, salinity, and ecological characteristics.
I. Coastal Wetlands in India
Mangroves
Salt-tolerant forests in intertidal zones; stabilize coasts and host rich biodiversity.
Estuaries
River–sea mixing zones with high nutrient exchange; breeding grounds for fish and prawns.
Lagoons & Backwaters
Shallow coastal water bodies separated by sandbars; support fisheries and birdlife.
Coral Reef-Associated Wetlands
Include reef flats, shallow lagoons, tide pools; high biodiversity and coastal protection.
Coastal & Salt Marshes
Brackish marshes and mudflats; key habitats for migratory birds and invertebrates.
Beaches & Intertidal Flats
Support turtle nesting, coastal vegetation, and feeding grounds for shorebirds.
Man-Made Coastal Wetlands
Shrimp farms, salt pans, coastal canals—support livelihoods but alter habitats.
II. Inland Wetlands in India
Rivers & Riverine Wetlands
Dynamic hydrological systems; vital for sediment flow, recharge, and aquatic fauna.
Lakes & Reservoirs
Natural and man-made lakes like Wular and Loktak; vital for buffering and fisheries.
Floodplain Wetlands
Seasonally inundated zones supporting agriculture, fisheries, and rich biodiversity.
Marshes & Swamps
Freshwater marshes, swamp forests, peatlands—critical for carbon storage.
High-Altitude Wetlands
Glacial lakes above 3000 m (e.g., Tso Moriri); climate-sensitive habitats.
Inland Saline Wetlands
Found in arid regions—Sambhar Lake; key for brine shrimp and flamingos.
Man-Made Inland Wetlands
Reservoirs, tanks, ponds—essential for irrigation, water supply, and fisheries.
Status and Conservation of Indian Wetlands
Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems that maintain hydrological balance, store carbon, support biodiversity and livelihoods. Rapid urbanisation, agriculture, pollution and climate pressures have created urgent conservation challenges across India.
Total Wetland Area: Wetlands cover ~5.12% of India’s geographical area (~16.89 million hectares), reflecting their large ecological footprint and socio-economic value.
Inland vs Coastal
Inland wetlands ≈ 69% of total; coastal wetlands ≈ 27%. Inland types dominate central, northern and northeast India; coasts concentrated in Gujarat, Kerala, TN, Odisha, ANI.
Natural vs Man-made
~66.6% natural wetlands (43.9% inland natural; 22.7% coastal natural). Remaining share are man-made: reservoirs, tanks, ponds, aquaculture ponds.
Biodiversity Hotspots
Wetlands host migratory birds, amphibians, endemic plants. Ramsar sites (Keoladeo, Chilika, Loktak, Wular) are key biodiversity repositories.
Climate Regulation
Mangroves, peatlands and marshes store carbon; coastal wetlands buffer storm surge and erosion, helping climate resilience.
Hydrological Balance
Wetlands recharge groundwater, filter pollutants, regulate floods and maintain river flows (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Cauvery).
Livelihoods
Millions rely on wetlands for fisheries, irrigation, fuelwood and tourism — e.g., Chilika fishery supports ~200,000 people directly.
Urbanisation & Encroachment
Urban expansion has eroded lakes in Bengaluru, Hyderabad and Delhi; reclamation and drainage shrink wetland areas.
Pollution & Eutrophication
Industrial effluents, sewage and runoff cause algal blooms and fish kills in urban lakes and river floodplains.
Hydrological Alteration
Dams, embankments, canals and groundwater over-extraction disrupt floodplain connectivity and shrink wetlands.
Climate Change
Sea-level rise, coral bleaching and glacial retreat threaten coastal and Himalayan wetlands alike.
Invasive Species
Water hyacinth, Prosopis and other invasives reduce oxygen, block channels and alter habitat structure.
Unsustainable Resource Use
Overfishing, dredging, peat extraction and unregulated tourism degrade wetland ecosystems and services.
India has expanded its network of Ramsar sites to represent diverse wetland types nationwide. Key globally recognised sites include Chilika, Keoladeo, Loktak, Wular, Bhitarkanika, Sundarbans and Ashtamudi—designation aids monitoring and conservation investments.
Wetlands Rules, 2017
Provide mechanisms for identification, notification, prohibiting reclamation, establishing State Wetland Authorities and preparing Integrated Management Plans (IMPs).
NPCA & Programmes
National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA) integrates NLCP & NWCP to support restoration, monitoring and catchment treatment.
Supportive Laws
Environmental Protection Act, CRZ notifications, Forest Conservation Act and Biodiversity Act complement wetland governance and protection.
Community-Based Conservation
Community stewardship in Chilika and Deepor Beel shows success in fisheries management, pollution control and bird protection.
Restoration & Rejuvenation
Desilting, sewage treatment and catchment rehabilitation have restored lakes in Hyderabad, Bengaluru and parts of Rajasthan.
Integrated Basin Management
Managing wetlands in the context of whole river basins (e.g., Ganga, Brahmaputra) ensures hydrological connectivity and long-term resilience.
Use of Technology
GIS, satellite monitoring, hydrological models and citizen science platforms greatly aid mapping, monitoring and planning efforts.
Biodiversity Actions
Protecting migratory routes, restoring mangroves, and coral reef conservation improve ecosystem resilience and species survival.
Mangrove Ecosystems – Structure, Services, Status in India & Conservation
1. Introduction to Mangrove Ecosystems
Mangroves are salt-tolerant, intertidal forest ecosystems found in sheltered coastal zones like estuaries, lagoons, and deltas. These ecosystems are characterized by halophytic vegetation capable of withstanding periodic inundation, high salinity, shifting sediments, and oxygen-poor soils. Their distribution depends on tidal amplitude, sediment availability, freshwater inflow, and tropical climate.
Globally, mangroves occupy ~15 million hectares and are declining due to human pressures. India hosts one of Asia’s largest mangrove areas, crucial for ecological security and coastal resilience.
2. Structural Features of Mangrove Ecosystems
Mangrove structure is defined by zonation, specialized roots, leaf/physiological adaptations, and diverse faunal assemblages that together create complex niches and high productivity.
a) Zonation Pattern
Clear zones influenced by salinity and tides: Seaward (Avicennia, Sonneratia), Middle (Rhizophora with aerial roots), Landward (Aegiceras, Nypa) reflecting freshwater influence.
b) Root Adaptations
Prop roots (Rhizophora) for support, pneumatophores (Avicennia) for gas exchange, knee and stilt roots stabilise sediments and enable survival in anoxic mud.
c) Leaf & Physiological Adaptations
Thick succulent leaves, salt glands for excretion, and vivipary (seed germination on parent tree) aid establishment in unstable, saline soils.
d) Faunal Assemblages
Rich fauna — birds (herons, kingfishers, migratory shorebirds), mudskippers, deer, estuarine crocodiles; mangroves serve as nurseries for juvenile fishes, prawns and molluscs.
3. Ecological and Economic Services of Mangroves
Mangroves provide coastal protection, biodiversity support, carbon sequestration, livelihoods, and water filtration — making them indispensable for coastal resilience and human wellbeing.
a) Coastal Protection
Reduce wave energy (60–70%), trap sediments and stabilize shorelines — buffer against cyclones, storm surges and tsunamis.
b) Biodiversity Support
Serve as breeding, spawning and nursery grounds; ~60% of India’s coastal fishery depends on mangrove-linked productivity.
c) Carbon Sequestration
Blue carbon sinks storing 3–4 times more carbon per hectare than many terrestrial forests; carbon in biomass and anaerobic sediments.
d) Livelihood Support
Provide firewood, honey, tannins, medicines, fisheries, crab culture, ecotourism and other NTFPs essential for coastal communities.
e) Water Filtration
Trap heavy metals and pollutants, filter nutrients and reduce eutrophication — improving coastal water quality.
4. Mangroves in India – Distribution and Status
India ranks among the top 10 mangrove-rich nations, with ~4,975 sq. km of mangrove cover (FSI 2021). Approximately 60% lies along the east coast due to fertile deltas and broad continental shelves. Recent trends show marginal net gains in some regions due to afforestation and community programs, but localized declines from development persist.
Sundarbans (West Bengal)
World’s largest mangrove system; UNESCO natural site; habitat for tigers, Heritiera fomes (sundari), crocodiles and migratory birds.
Bhitarkanika (Odisha)
Second-largest mangrove patch in India; notable for saltwater crocodiles and dense Avicennia stands.
Godavari–Krishna Delta (AP)
Extensive estuarine mangroves influenced by freshwater inputs; under aquaculture and development pressure.
Pichavaram & Muthupet (TN)
Dense Rhizophora stands, important for local fisheries and ecotourism.
Gulf of Kachchh (Gujarat)
Dominated by Avicennia marina; adapted to high salinity and arid coastal conditions.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Pristine mangrove belts; important coral–mangrove interactions and endemic biodiversity.
5. Threats to Mangrove Ecosystems in India
Mangroves face multiple anthropogenic and climate-related threats — coastal development, aquaculture, altered hydrology, pollution, sea-level rise, and invasive species — that undermine their ecological functions.
a) Coastal Development
Ports, industries, and tourism infrastructure fragment habitats and alter natural hydrology.
b) Aquaculture Expansion
Shrimp farming clears mangroves, causes soil acidification and saline intrusion into hinterlands.
c) Reduced Freshwater Inflows
Dams and diversions disrupt sediment supply and salinity gradients essential for mangrove health.
d) Pollution
Heavy metals, plastics, oil spills and chemical effluents degrade soils and aquatic life.
e) Climate Change
Sea-level rise, stronger cyclones and changing rainfall threaten low-lying coastlines and island mangroves.
f) Invasive Species
Species like Prosopis juliflora impede natural regeneration and alter coastal vegetation dynamics.
6. Conservation and Management Strategies
Conservation requires legal protection, community stewardship, afforestation, integrated blue economy planning, scientific monitoring and disaster risk reduction measures to sustain mangrove resilience.
a) Legal Protection
CRZ notifications, Protected Areas, Ramsar sites and UNESCO designations provide statutory safeguards for many mangrove tracts.
b) Community-Based Conservation
Local stewardship in Sundarbans and Pichavaram — patrolling, sustainable harvesting and ecotourism — supports long-term protection.
c) Afforestation & Restoration
State-level plantation drives using appropriate species and tidal planning restore degraded mangrove areas.
d) Integrating Blue Economy Policies
Incorporation into National Coastal Mission, NDCs and proposed initiatives like a National Mangrove Initiative to align conservation with development.
e) Scientific Monitoring
Remote sensing, GIS, hydrological modelling, biodiversity surveys and eDNA tools for effective planning and carbon stock estimates.
f) Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
Integrating mangroves into cyclone and coastal risk planning (e.g., Odisha, West Bengal) reduces impacts from storms like Fani and Yaas.
Estuaries and Delta Ecosystems in India – Status and Conservation
1. Introduction to Estuaries and Delta Ecosystems
Estuaries are semi-enclosed coastal waters where freshwater mixes with seawater; deltas form from river-borne sediment at river mouths. Together they host mangroves, seagrasses, mudflats and rich fauna, and support fisheries, livelihoods, and coastal buffering. Major Indian systems include Hooghly, Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, Narmada, and Mandovi–Zuari; major deltas include the Ganga–Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery deltas.
2. Ecological Characteristics
Key physical and biological attributes that define estuarine and delta ecosystems.
2.1 Hydrological Dynamics
Tidal mixing, salinity gradients, sediment deposition and nutrient inflows create strong ecological gradients and dynamic habitats.
2.2 Biodiversity Richness
Support mangroves, seagrass beds, fish, crustaceans, dolphins and migratory birds—high local and regional biodiversity values.
2.3 Ecosystem Services
Carbon sequestration, fisheries, flood mitigation, nutrient cycling, shoreline stabilization and livelihood support for millions.
2.4 Socio-economic importance
Support agriculture, aquaculture, navigation and cultural practices linked to deltaic productivity and coastal economies.
3. Major Estuarine and Delta Systems of India
Representative estuaries and deltas with ecological and socio-economic significance.
3.1 Ganga–Brahmaputra–Meghna Delta
World’s largest delta; includes the Sundarbans — extensive mangroves, fisheries and globally important biodiversity.
3.2 Mahanadi Delta
Odisha delta with Bhitarkanika — key mangrove and estuarine crocodile habitat and productive fisheries.
3.3 Godavari & Krishna Deltas
Support paddy agriculture, aquaculture and mangrove belts; Coringa is a major estuarine refuge.
3.4 Narmada & Tapti Estuaries
Gulf of Khambhat region with strong tides and sediment flux supporting productive fisheries and salt-tolerant vegetation.
3.5 Cauvery Delta
Fertile rice-growing delta in Tamil Nadu; supports estuarine wetlands but faces upstream water diversion.
3.6 Mandovi–Zuari & Other West Coast Estuaries
Smaller but productive estuaries supporting fisheries, mangroves, and local livelihoods on India’s west coast.
4. Present Status of Estuarine and Delta Ecosystems
Key trends and observations affecting estuaries and deltas across India.
4.1 Declining Mangrove Cover
Some deltas (e.g., Krishna, Cauvery) have lost significant mangrove area due to embankments, aquaculture and land-use change.
4.2 Altered Hydrology
Upstream dams and barrages reduce sediment supply, causing sediment starvation and subsidence in many deltas.
4.3 Pollution & Eutrophication
Industrial effluents, sewage, agricultural runoff and plastic waste degrade water quality (Hooghly, Cooum, etc.).
4.4 Coastal Erosion & Land Subsidence
Over 35% of deltaic coastline is eroding; sea-level rise and reduced sediment delivery accelerate shoreline retreat.
4.5 Biodiversity Decline
Overfishing, habitat loss and invasive species reduce fish populations, benthic diversity and migratory bird numbers (e.g., Hilsa decline).
4.6 Climate Change Vulnerability
Sea-level rise, saline intrusion and stronger cyclones threaten ecosystems and coastal communities; Sundarbans particularly vulnerable.
5. Key Conservation Challenges
Principal threats and governance gaps undermining estuarine and delta resilience.
Unsustainable Aquaculture
Shrimp farms and pond conversion encroach mangroves and wetlands, altering hydrology and habitat.
Urbanisation & Industrialisation
Ports, industry and infrastructure fragment habitats and increase pollution and coastal pressure.
Hydrological Fragmentation
Dams and water withdrawals upstream reduce environmental flows and sediment delivery critical to deltas.
Weak Governance
Overlapping agency mandates (forests, fisheries, coastal regs) complicate coordinated protection and enforcement.
Lack of Integrated Management
Catchment-to-coast processes are often fragmented in policy, undermining holistic delta resilience.
6. Conservation Strategies & Policy Framework
Existing measures and recommended approaches for protecting estuaries and deltas.
6.1 Protected Areas & Ramsar
Protected sites (Sundarbans, Bhitarkanika, Coringa) and Ramsar listings (e.g., Chilika) provide legal safeguards.
6.2 Mangrove Rehabilitation
State-led and community-based planting (Avicennia, Rhizophora) to restore nursery and protective functions.
6.3 CRZ & Coastal Zone Plans
Coastal Regulation Zone rules and CZMPs identify CRZ-I sensitive estuarine areas for strict protection and planning.
6.4 Sustainable Fisheries Management
Seasonal bans, mesh regulations and habitat restoration to rebuild fish stocks and maintain food webs.
6.5 Environmental Flows (E-flows)
Maintaining minimum freshwater discharge from dams restores salinity balance and sediment delivery to deltas.
6.6 Pollution Control & Waste Management
Sewage treatment, effluent monitoring and plastic reduction campaigns to improve estuarine water quality.
6.7 Nature-based Climate Adaptation
Mangrove belts, bioshields and shelterbelts provide disaster risk reduction and coastal resilience.
6.8 Community Participation
Joint Mangrove Management and eco-development committees mobilize local stewardship and traditional knowledge.
7. Way Forward
Priority actions to enhance resilience, monitoring, and livelihoods for estuarine and delta ecosystems.
Integrated Basin-to-Coast Management
Link upstream catchments with delta and coastal planning to manage sediment, flows and land-use holistically.
Scientific Monitoring & Technology
Use GIS, remote sensing, drones and hydrodynamic modelling to monitor sediment, salinity and biodiversity trends.
Climate-resilient Livelihoods
Promote sustainable aquaculture, eco-tourism and blue-carbon projects to diversify incomes and reduce pressure.
Stronger Legal Protection
Enhance statutory protection for mangroves, estuarine wetlands and floodplains and ensure enforcement.
Research on Sediment & Salinity Dynamics
Targeted studies on sediment budgets, salinity intrusion and ecosystem responses to inform adaptive policy.
Strengthen Community Institutions
Support fisher cooperatives, local management committees and participatory monitoring for long-term stewardship.
Coral Reef Ecosystems – Threats and Conservation (With Special Focus on India)
1. Introduction to Coral Reef Ecosystems
Overview
Corals (Scleractinia) build calcium-carbonate reefs in warm, shallow seas, creating highly productive habitats that buffer coasts and support complex food webs.
2. Global Importance of Coral Reefs
Biodiversity Hotspots
Reefs support vast species richness — nearly 25% of marine biodiversity despite occupying <0.1% ocean floor.
Economic Value
Fisheries, tourism and coastal protection yield multi-trillion-dollar global benefits (est. USD 2.7 trillion/year).
Climate Regulation
Reefs contribute to carbon storage in sediments and support ocean productivity through biological cycling.
Cultural Significance
Many coastal communities hold traditional knowledge and cultural ties to reef ecosystems and resources.
3. Coral Reef Distribution in India
Lakshadweep Islands
Atoll reefs with rich lagoon ecosystems — dominant corals include Acropora and Porites.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Extensive fringing and barrier reefs with high endemism influenced by the Indo-Pacific biogeography.
Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu)
21 islands with coral–seagrass–mangrove complexes; designated Marine Biosphere Reserve.
Gulf of Kachchh (Gujarat)
Patchy/fringing reefs adapted to turbidity and wide temperature fluctuations.
4. Status of Coral Reefs in India
Coral Bleaching Events
Major bleaching recorded in 1998, 2010, 2016 and 2020; severity rising with SST increases, notably in Lakshadweep and Andaman.
Degradation Trends
Substantial declines (40–60% live coral cover in some Gulf of Mannar and Andaman sites); Acropora highly vulnerable.
Recovery Patterns
Some resilience observed: Gulf of Kachchh shows heat/sediment tolerance; targeted restoration in Lakshadweep shows local gains.
5. Key Threats to Coral Reef Ecosystems
1. Climate Change & Ocean Warming
Increased SSTs trigger bleaching by expelling zooxanthellae; repeated events reduce resilience.
2. Ocean Acidification
Lower pH reduces carbonate ions, hindering calcification and coral growth rates.
3. Coastal Development
Ports, reclamation and shoreline modification increase turbidity and sedimentation, blocking light.
4. Pollution & Nutrient Runoff
Agricultural runoff fuels algal blooms; oil, heavy metals and sewage degrade reef health.
5. Destructive Fishing Practices
Explosives, cyanide and bottom trawling physically damage reef structure and breeding grounds.
6. Overfishing
Removal of herbivores permits algal overgrowth, blocking coral recruitment and recovery.
7. Invasive & Outbreak Species
Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) cause intense predation in some areas.
8. Tourism Pressure
Anchoring, careless diving, souvenir collection and waste from resorts degrade reefs.
9. Diseases
Warmer waters favour coral diseases (white/black band, skeletal eroding pathogens), increasing mortality.
6. Conservation and Management: Global Approaches
International Agreements
CBD, SDG 14 and CITES guide conservation, trade controls and policy frameworks for reefs.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
No-take zones and regulated use boost reef resilience and increase fish biomass.
Coral Restoration Techniques
Coral gardening, micro-fragmentation, substrate stabilization, and artificial reefs aid recovery.
Early Warning & Monitoring
Satellite SST, underwater sensors, drones and eDNA mapping enable proactive responses to stress events.
7. Coral Reef Conservation in India
Protected Areas & Legal Framework
MPAs like Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kachchh, Mahatma Gandhi MNP; corals protected under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
Reef Restoration Projects
NIO, ZSI and regional efforts: coral transplantation in Gulf of Mannar, artificial substrates and nurseries in Lakshadweep and Andaman.
Coastal Regulation & Blue Economy
CRZ notifications and ICZM promote sustainable development, controlling pollution and tourism impacts.
Community-based Conservation
Fishers and local stakeholders in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat engage in monitoring, reducing destructive practices and co-management.
Scientific & Technological Innovations
ISRO remote sensing, NIOT underwater observatories, eDNA and bio-rock tech are bolstering reef science and restoration.
Climate Resilience & Adaptation
Focus on climate-resilient coral strains, mangrove restoration and CO₂ emissions reduction to enhance long-term reef survival.
8. Way Forward
Strengthen MPAs
Expand and effectively manage MPAs with science-based monitoring and enforcement for long-term recovery.
Promote Climate-Smart Conservation
Protect carbon sinks (mangroves, seagrass), reduce emissions and invest in climate-adaptive reef strategies.
Sustainable Tourism
Implement eco-diving codes, controlled visitation, and ban anchoring on sensitive reef areas.
Integrate Communities
Co-management, alternative livelihoods and local stewardship align conservation with socio-economic needs.
Enhance Research & Data
Long-term ecological monitoring, AI, eDNA and integrated data systems to guide adaptive management.
9. Conclusion
Summary
Coral reefs underpin marine biodiversity and coastal resilience in India (Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar, Gulf regions). Climate change, pollution and unsustainable development threaten reefs — requiring integrated science-driven governance, restoration, community engagement and climate action to conserve these vital ecosystems for future generations.
Ramsar Sites and India’s Wetland Protection Efforts
Wetlands are among the planet’s most productive ecosystems — providing groundwater recharge, flood control, carbon sequestration and habitats for diverse life. India hosts a vast range of wetlands (high-altitude lakes, floodplains, coastal mangroves, lagoons, freshwater marshes and man-made reservoirs) and is an active participant in the Ramsar Convention for wetland protection.
What it is
The Ramsar Convention (1971) is the only global treaty dedicated to wetlands. Parties designate wetlands of international importance, commit to wise use, and integrate wetland conservation into national land-use policies.
India & Ramsar
India acceded to Ramsar in 1982 and, as of the current count, has 75 Ramsar Sites ( >1.3 million hectares ), covering almost every biogeographic region and reflecting wide ecosystem diversity.
Asia’s largest brackish water lagoon — critical for migratory birds, supports Irrawaddy dolphins and fisheries; strong example of community-led restoration.
World’s largest mangrove delta; crucial for coastal protection, mangrove biodiversity and species such as the Royal Bengal tiger.
One of Asia’s largest freshwater lakes, important for flood moderation, fisheries and livelihoods in the Jhelum basin.
Famous for phumdis (floating biomass) and Keibul Lamjao — the world’s only floating national park supporting the endangered Sangai deer.
India’s largest inland saltwater lake — important staging ground for migratory birds, including flamingos.
Ramsar additions surged between 2019–2023, driven by better mapping, state nominations and restoration programmes; sites span high-altitude lakes to coastal mangroves and man-made reservoirs.
Biodiversity Hotspots
Wetlands host over 40% of India’s bird species (including migratory birds along the Central Asian Flyway), fish, amphibians, reptiles and endangered species such as the gharial and Gangetic river dolphin.
Climate Regulation & Hydrology
Mangroves and peatlands sequester carbon; coastal wetlands buffer storm surges and erosion. Wetlands regulate river flows, recharge groundwater and reduce flood intensity.
Encroachment & Land-Use Change
Conversion for agriculture, real estate and infrastructure reduces wetland area and severs hydrological connectivity.
Pollution & Hydrological Alteration
Sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff and barrages/dams alter water quality and flows; invasive species (e.g., water hyacinth) further degrade habitats.
Article 48A and 51A(g) emphasise environmental protection. The Environmental Protection Act (1986) provides legal powers; Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017 prohibit reclamation and dumping in notified wetlands and mandate State Wetland Authorities (SWAs) and a National Wetland Committee (NWC).
National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA) consolidates earlier lake and wetland schemes and funds integrated management for priority wetlands.
India’s national Wetland Inventory Portal (2021) and ISRO’s Wetland Atlas use satellite/GIS to document and monitor over 230,000 wetlands — enabling planning, monitoring and periodic assessment.
Community Management
Community stewardship is central — e.g., Chilika’s fisher-led hydrological reconnection, Deepor Beel initiatives with fishers and NGOs, and local eco-tourism models that support livelihoods and conservation.
State Efforts
Examples: Punjab’s Keshopur Miani restoration (eco-tourism), Tamil Nadu’s wetland mission, Odisha’s statewide mapping and climate adaptation planning for coastal wetlands.
Wetland restoration features in the National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change, Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs) prioritise mangroves and lagoons, and High-carbon wetlands are reflected in India’s NDCs for mitigation and resilience.
Mangrove restoration and wetland rehabilitation are widely promoted as nature-based solutions to reduce coastal risk, sequester carbon and support fisheries and livelihoods.
Benefits of Designation
Ramsar recognition brings global attention, technical support, monitoring frameworks, and often funding for restoration and management — while strengthening local conservation commitments.
Policy Driver
Designation helps lock-in protective measures, prioritise sites for restoration, and catalyse community-based livelihood diversification through responsible nature tourism.
Weak rule enforcement, incomplete boundary demarcation and inter-departmental coordination gaps undermine effective protection of many wetlands.
Altered flows, lack of ecological flow allocations, and climate-induced extreme events (changes in monsoon patterns, sea-level rise) intensify vulnerability.
Ecosystem-Based Management
Adopt integrated management that combines hydrology, biodiversity and livelihoods; restore ecological flows and reconnect fragmented wetlands.
Strengthened Governance & Community Stewardship
Improve enforcement of wetland rules, demarcate boundaries, incentivise community stewardship, and support livelihood alternatives linked to sustainable wetland use.
India’s 75 Ramsar Sites represent an invaluable wetland heritage. Sustaining these ecosystems requires stronger implementation of wetlands rules, science-based restoration, climate adaptation, enhanced GIS monitoring and active community participation. Effective wetland governance will secure biodiversity, strengthen climate resilience, and support millions who depend on these systems.
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