Indian Civil Services Hub: Threats and Conservation of Biodiversity

Threats and Conservation of Biodiversity

Biodiversity, the foundation of ecological stability and human well-being, faces multiple anthropogenic and natural threats. These pressures disrupt ecosystems, reduce genetic diversity, and endanger species globally. Understanding these threats is essential for effective conservation and sustainable management.

Habitat Loss & Fragmentation

Deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture destroy habitats, isolating species. Example: Palm oil expansion in Northeast India and mining in Chhattisgarh threaten elephants and leopards.

Climate Change

Rising temperatures and shifting rainfall alter ecosystems. Example: Coral bleaching in the Andaman Sea and shrinking Himalayan snowlines affect endemic species.

Pollution

Industrial waste, pesticides, and plastic degrade habitats. Example: Ganga River pollution impacts fish and Ganges river dolphins.

Overexploitation

Unsustainable hunting, fishing, and logging exceed natural regeneration. Example: Overfishing in coastal waters depletes marine stocks.

Invasive Alien Species

Non-native species outcompete local ones. Example: Prosopis juliflora invades arid India, displacing native grasses and reducing grazing land.

Illegal Wildlife Trade

Poaching and trafficking threaten many species. Example: Pangolins, India’s most trafficked mammals, face critical population decline.

Agricultural Intensification

Monocultures and heavy pesticide use reduce agro-biodiversity. Example: Hybrid crops in Punjab and Haryana replace traditional seeds.

Infrastructure Development

Roads, dams, and cities fragment habitats. Example: Char Dham highway expansion endangers Himalayan forests and slope stability.

Forest Fires & Disasters

Wildfires destroy forests, releasing carbon. Example: 2021 Similipal fires in Odisha caused severe habitat and vegetation loss.

Neglect of Traditional Knowledge

Ignoring indigenous conservation erodes sustainability. Example: Western Ghats communities losing forest management traditions.

Biodiversity hotspots are regions with exceptional species richness, high endemism, and significant threats from human activities — representing global conservation priorities vital for ecological balance.

Concept Origin

Introduced by Norman Myers (1988), the hotspot concept identifies ecologically rich yet endangered regions, guiding conservation planning and investment globally.

Defining Criteria

Conservation International defines two global criteria: high plant endemism and major habitat loss, forming the basis for hotspot recognition.

Criterion 1 – Species Endemism

A hotspot must host at least 1,500 endemic vascular plant species, showing unique evolutionary value. Example: Madagascar has 11,000 endemic plants.

Criterion 2 – Habitat Loss

Hotspots must have lost over 70% of native vegetation. Example: The Philippines hotspot lost more than 90% of forests due to logging and farming.

Global Hotspots Overview

36 global hotspots occupy only 2.3% of land but support over 50% of plant endemics and 43% of vertebrates, reflecting immense biodiversity concentration.

Geographical Distribution

Hotspots occur across the Andes, Madagascar, Indo-Burma, Sundaland, and Mesoamerica — covering tropical forests, islands, and mountains.

Ecological Significance

Hotspots provide ecosystem services like pollination, water regulation, and carbon sequestration vital for sustaining human and ecological health.

Evolutionary Importance

They act as “cradles and museums of evolution”, preserving ancient lineages and speciation centers like the Himalayas and Western Ghats.

Threat Dimensions

Deforestation, climate change, and invasive species cause habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss, e.g., coral bleaching in Indo-Pacific hotspots.

Human Pressure

Hotspots overlap with dense populations — e.g., Indo-Burma covers India, Myanmar, Vietnam — increasing land-use pressures and resource conflicts.

Conservation programs like CEPF, UNESCO Biosphere Reserves, and GEF drive global hotspot restoration. Successful efforts include Silent Valley (Western Ghats) and Sundarbans mangrove regeneration. Strengthening climate adaptation, indigenous participation, and ecological corridors is key to securing these irreplaceable natural treasures.

India, though covering only 2.4% of the world’s land area, harbors 7–8% of all recorded species, making it one of the 17 megadiverse countries globally. These regions represent areas of exceptionally rich biodiversity under serious threat from human activities. According to Conservation International, India hosts four biodiversity hotspots — Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats, and Sundaland (Nicobar Islands) — all crucial for global conservation efforts.

Himalaya Hotspot

Stretching across Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and parts of Northeast India, the Himalayan hotspot features diverse ecosystems — from subtropical forests to alpine meadows.

It shelters species like snow leopard, red panda, Himalayan monal, and rare medicinal herbs such as Yarsagumba.

Recent conservation efforts include the SECURE Himalaya Project for habitat restoration and wildlife corridor protection. Climate change and infrastructure development threaten glacial systems and fragile mountain ecosystems.

Indo-Burma Hotspot

Covering Northeast India — Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Meghalaya, and parts of the Andaman region — this hotspot is among the world’s richest in endemic flora and fauna.

Species such as Hoolock gibbon, clouded leopard, and Himalayan black bear thrive here. The region’s forests harbor over 7,000 plant species, many found nowhere else.

Dampa Tiger Reserve and Namdapha National Park exemplify conservation success, though shifting cultivation and dam projects pose continuing threats.

Western Ghats Hotspot

Extending through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, the Western Ghats is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the most endemic-rich regions globally.

It hosts over 4,000 plant species, with 1,500+ endemics, and iconic fauna like lion-tailed macaque, king cobra, and Malabar civet.

Recent projects like the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and Periyar Tiger Reserve focus on sustainable tourism and forest regeneration. Key threats include deforestation, hydropower expansion, and invasive species.

Sundaland Hotspot (Nicobar Islands)

Represented in India by the Nicobar group of islands, this hotspot includes tropical rainforests, mangroves, and coral reefs.

It supports dugong, Nicobar megapode, saltwater crocodile, and several endemic marine species.

The Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park and Galathea Bay Sanctuary protect coral and turtle habitats, though rising sea levels, coral bleaching, and tourism pressures threaten these fragile ecosystems.

Together, these hotspots cover less than 5% of India’s land area but contain over 60% of its species diversity. They are critical for climate regulation, water security, and livelihoods of millions. Conservation initiatives like the National Biodiversity Mission (NBM), Eco-Sensitive Zones, and People’s Biodiversity Registers are strengthening local stewardship.

Sustaining India’s biodiversity hotspots requires integrated landscape management, scientific research, and community participation, ensuring that the nation’s natural wealth endures amid development pressures and a changing climate.

India’s biological diversity plays a vital role in carbon sequestration, helping mitigate climate change impacts. Forests, oceans, soils, and ecosystems act as natural carbon sinks, storing atmospheric carbon dioxide and sustaining ecological balance. The linkage between carbon storage and biodiversity highlights how protecting ecosystems enhances climate resilience, ecosystem services, and sustainable development.

Forest Ecosystems and Carbon Storage

Forests are primary carbon sinks, absorbing CO₂ through photosynthesis. India’s mangroves and Himalayan forests sequester millions of tonnes annually, reducing greenhouse emissions.

Soil Carbon and Microbial Diversity

Soils store more carbon than vegetation and the atmosphere combined. Microbial communities enhance carbon retention; zero-tillage and organic farming increase soil organic carbon.

Mangroves and Blue Carbon Ecosystems

Mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes efficiently store “blue carbon.” Sundarbans and Bhitarkanika mangroves capture CO₂ while protecting coasts from erosion.

Grasslands and Rangelands

Grasslands like Gujarat’s Banni and Deccan savannas sequester carbon through deep-rooted species, supporting both grazing livelihoods and soil carbon storage.

Agroforestry and Sustainable Agriculture

Integrating trees with crops enhances biodiversity and carbon capture. The Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF) promotes tree-based farming for climate-smart livelihoods.

Wetlands as Carbon Reservoirs

Wetlands store vast carbon in sediments. Loktak Lake and Chilika Lagoon act as vital carbon sinks while regulating microclimates and sustaining biodiversity.

Peatlands and Organic Soil Systems

Peat-rich zones in Northeast India store immense carbon reserves. Degradation releases CO₂ and methane, intensifying climate warming.

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stability

Diverse ecosystems recover faster after disturbances. High species richness ensures sustained carbon sequestration and climate resilience.

Urban Green Spaces and Carbon Capture

Urban biodiversity—parks, green belts, rooftop gardens—absorbs CO₂. Delhi’s Miyawaki forests and green initiatives aid city-level carbon neutrality.

Climate Policy and Biodiversity Integration

India’s National Mission for Green India links carbon sequestration with ecosystem restoration. Nature-based climate solutions strengthen adaptation and mitigation.

Conservation of biodiversity involves the protection, restoration, and sustainable use of species, ecosystems, and genetic resources to maintain ecological balance and ensure survival of all forms of life. It includes in situ (on-site) and ex situ (off-site) strategies that work together for long-term species preservation.

In Situ Conservation

In situ conservation protects species within their natural habitats, maintaining ecological interactions and evolutionary processes. India’s protected area network exemplifies this approach.

National Parks

Core areas for ecosystem conservation where human activity is restricted. Examples: Jim Corbett (Uttarakhand) protects tigers and elephants; Kaziranga (Assam) conserves one-horned rhinoceros and floodplains.

Wildlife Sanctuaries

Allow limited human activity while safeguarding species. Examples: Keoladeo Ghana (Rajasthan) supports migratory birds; Gir Sanctuary (Gujarat) conserves Asiatic lions.

Biosphere Reserves

Integrate conservation, research, and sustainable use through core, buffer, and transition zones. Examples: Nilgiri and Sundarbans Biosphere Reserves conserve ecosystems and local livelihoods.

Conservation & Community Reserves

Encourage local stewardship outside protected areas. Examples: Kachchh (Gujarat) and Aizawl (Mizoram) reserves promote eco-development and biodiversity protection.

Sacred Groves

Traditional forest patches protected for spiritual reasons. Example: Sacred groves in Meghalaya preserve endemic flora and sustain indigenous conservation practices.

Ex Situ Conservation

Ex situ conservation maintains species outside their natural habitats, aiding research, breeding, and restoration of threatened species.

Botanical Gardens

Conserve plant diversity through cultivation and genetic studies. Example: Indian Botanical Garden, Kolkata preserves 12,000+ plant species including rare flora.

Zoological Parks

Breed and display animals for education and recovery. Examples: Arignar Anna Zoo (Chennai) and Nandankanan (Odisha) breed white tigers and gharials.

Gene & Seed Banks

Preserve genetic material for research. Examples: NBPGR (Delhi) holds 400,000+ seed accessions; NBAGR (Haryana) protects livestock genes.

Cryopreservation & Tissue Culture

Uses biotechnology to preserve cells and gametes at ultra-low temperatures. Example: NFATCC (Pune) stores genetic material of endangered species.

Captive Breeding & Reintroduction

Raises endangered species for wild release. Examples: Project Hangul (Kashmir stag) and Vulture Breeding Centres (Haryana, Assam) restore populations.

India’s conservation framework blends traditional wisdom with modern science through in situ and ex situ strategies. Protected areas, gene banks, and community efforts ensure sustainable biodiversity protection. Continued research, public participation, and global cooperation remain essential to safeguard India’s rich natural heritage for future generations.

India’s biodiversity conservation efforts integrate legislation, institutions, community participation, and technological innovation. These initiatives collectively ensure the protection, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of biological resources across ecosystems.

1. Legal Framework – Biological Diversity Act, 2002

The Biological Diversity Act provides a legal foundation for conservation, sustainable use, and benefit-sharing. It mandates Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) and People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) across local bodies for inclusive governance.

2. Institutional Mechanism – National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)

The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), established in 2003, oversees biodiversity governance, regulates access to genetic resources, and promotes traditional knowledge protection through collaboration with State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs).

3. National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) 2008 & Update 2014

NBAP outlines strategic goals for biodiversity integration in development planning, climate adaptation, and sustainable livelihoods. It aligns with India’s Aichi Biodiversity Targets and UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

4. Protected Area Network Expansion

India’s network includes 106 National Parks, 573 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 115 Conservation and 100+ Community Reserves (2024). Initiatives like Project Tiger, Elephant, and Snow Leopard enhance species conservation and habitat restoration.

5. Biodiversity Hotspot Protection

India conserves four global biodiversity hotspots — Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats, and Sundaland. Recent restoration projects like the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve focus on corridor connectivity and community co-management.

6. Eco-Restoration and Afforestation Initiatives

National Mission for Green India and CAMPA funds support ecosystem restoration, mangrove regeneration, and afforestation. The Aravalli Green Wall Project (2023) aims to combat desertification and biodiversity loss.

7. Community-Led Conservation

Schemes like Eco-Development and Joint Forest Management (JFM) empower local communities. Arapoonga Model of Kerala and Khonoma Village (Nagaland) exemplify successful community-driven biodiversity protection.

8. Mainstreaming Traditional and Indigenous Knowledge

Efforts like the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) document indigenous medicinal practices, preventing biopiracy. Integration with AYUSH and local biodiversity management strengthens cultural-ecological linkages.

9. Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Conservation

The Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) project and Blue Flag Beaches Programme promote sustainable coastal ecosystems. Gahirmatha and Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve conserve marine biodiversity and livelihoods.

10. Global Commitments and Innovative Finance

India champions biodiversity diplomacy through COP15 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022), LiFE Mission, and BioFin Partnerships. Innovative green bonds and biodiversity offsets enhance conservation financing.

India’s biodiversity conservation combines policy, participation, and innovation — from legal instruments to community stewardship. Strengthening ecological restoration, digital monitoring, and nature-based solutions will ensure long-term resilience and sustainability.

Global biodiversity conservation relies on collaborative frameworks, treaties, and conventions that integrate ecological protection, sustainable use, and equitable benefit sharing. These initiatives align nations toward safeguarding ecosystems amid climate change and rapid development.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992

Promotes conservation, sustainable use, and benefit-sharing of biological resources. India’s Biodiversity Act (2002) aligns with CBD goals emphasizing local participation.

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2000

Regulates GMO movement across borders to prevent biodiversity harm. India’s GEAC oversees biosafety and biotechnological risk management.

Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing, 2010

Ensures fair benefit-sharing of genetic resources. India’s People’s Biodiversity Registers empower communities to preserve traditional knowledge.

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971

Protects wetlands of global importance. India has 82 Ramsar sites (2025), including Loktak Lake and Pichavaram mangroves.

CITES – Trade in Endangered Species, 1973

Regulates global wildlife trade. India bans tiger part and ivory trade; WCCB strengthens enforcement and global coordination.

UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme, 1971

Integrates conservation and development. India’s Nilgiri and Sundarbans Biosphere Reserves showcase community-based sustainability.

UNFCCC – Climate Change Convention, 1992

Recognizes biodiversity’s climate role. India’s REDD+ programs link forest conservation with carbon mitigation.

Global Environment Facility (GEF), 1991

Funds biodiversity projects in developing nations. India receives support for coral reef, mangrove, and corridor restoration.

Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), 1979

Protects migratory species globally. India’s 2020 COP in Gandhinagar emphasized dolphin and flyway conservation.

Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, 2022

Sets 30×30 target — protect 30% of Earth’s land and sea by 2030. India aligns through eco-restoration and sustainable landscape initiatives.