Population and Associated Issues in India

An overview of demographic trends, policies, challenges, and opportunities shaping India’s population dynamics.

Introduction

India, with over 1.4 billion people (2025), is the second most populous country globally. Population dynamics influence economic growth, social stability, and environmental sustainability, making it a critical governance concern. Population trends intersect with health, education, employment, and infrastructure planning. Understanding population issues requires analysis of demography, policies, and socio-economic implications.

1. Population in India – Overview

1.1 Population Size and Growth

India’s population crossed 1.4 billion in 2025, growing at 0.8% annually, reflecting a declining but substantial growth rate. High growth is concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh, creating regional pressure points. Example: Urban areas like Bengaluru and Delhi face infrastructure strain due to in-migration.

1.2 Global Comparison

India’s population is just below China’s but projected to surpass it by 2027. With 17% of the world’s population, India bears global responsibility for sustainable development.

1.3 Urban-Rural Divide

Urban population exceeds 35%, increasing demand for housing, transport, and sanitation. Rural areas still house 65%, relying on agriculture and traditional livelihoods, often under infrastructural stress. Example: Delhi’s metro expansion addresses urban population pressure, while rural India faces water and health shortages.

1.4 Regional Variation

Northern and eastern states have higher fertility rates, while southern and western states show lower growth. Kerala’s TFR of 1.7 contrasts with Bihar’s TFR of 2.9, reflecting socio-economic and educational disparities.

1.5 Population Density

India’s average population density is 464 persons per sq km (Census 2011), with urban hotspots like Mumbai exceeding 20,000 per sq km. High density affects sanitation, housing, and public health.

2. Demography

2.1 Age Structure

India has a youthful population: 65% under 35 years, creating potential for demographic dividend. Example: IT and start-up sectors benefit from young, skilled professionals in Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and Pune.

2.2 Fertility and Mortality

Fertility rates are declining due to education, urbanization, and family planning. Life expectancy increased to 70 years (2025), reflecting improved healthcare, vaccination, and nutrition.

2.3 Life Expectancy and Health Indicators

Infant mortality rate declined to 28 per 1,000 live births. Maternal mortality ratio is 103 per 100,000 live births (2023). Example: PM-JAY (Ayushman Bharat) covers 5 crore poor families, enhancing health access.

2.4 Sex Ratio and Gender Distribution

India’s sex ratio is 1020 females per 1000 males (Kerala 2023), but northern states show imbalance. Sex-selective practices persist in Haryana and Punjab, though PCPNDT Act aims to curb them.

2.5 Migration

Internal migration shapes demography—rural to urban, inter-state, and seasonal flows. Example: COVID-19 reverse migration highlighted vulnerabilities of urban informal workers.

2.6 Population Composition

Children, working-age, and elderly proportions determine health, education, and employment priorities. Example: Smart Cities Mission considers youth concentration for economic planning.

3. Population Policy

3.1 Historical Background

India introduced National Family Planning Programme (1952), the first in the world, aiming to control population growth.

3.2 National Population Policy 2000

Focuses on achieving replacement-level fertility (2.1) by 2025, improving maternal and child health, and empowering women. Emphasis on voluntary family planning, education, and health access.

3.3 Reproductive and Child Health Programs

Programs like RCH Phase II, Mission Indradhanush, and Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana improve maternal and child health indicators.

3.4 Recent Policy Measures

Promotion of digital health and contraceptive tracking improves efficiency. Example: e-Sanjeevani telemedicine ensures reproductive health advice in rural regions.

3.5 Challenges in Policy Implementation

Cultural resistance, lack of awareness, and resource gaps impede universal adoption. High fertility clusters in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan require targeted interventions.

4. Ageing, Gender Imbalance, and Demographic Dividend

4.1 Ageing Population

India’s elderly population (60+) is projected at 19% by 2050, requiring social security, healthcare, and pension planning. Example: Increasing popularity of Ayush and elderly wellness centers addresses ageing challenges.

4.2 Gender Imbalance

Persistent skewed sex ratios threaten social stability, marriage patterns, and labor participation. Example: Haryana’s ‘Beti Bachao Beti Padhao’ improves female birth registration and education access.

4.3 Demographic Dividend

Youthful population provides labor force for economic growth if educated and employed. Example: Skill India Mission trains 40 crore youth by 2030 to harness demographic potential.

4.4 Risks of Dividend

Without skill development, employment generation, and health investments, the demographic dividend may turn into a liability. Youth unemployment, underemployment, and urban pressure require proactive policies.

4.5 Policy Response

Education, vocational training, and healthcare integration ensures youth productivity. Example: Digital India and Start-Up India initiatives leverage tech-savvy youth for innovation-led growth.

5. Population Explosion – Causes & Impact

5.1 Causes of Population Explosion

High fertility rates, declining mortality, early marriage, in-migration, and socio-economic factors contribute to population explosion. Example: Education levels in Kerala correlate with lower fertility.

5.2 Impacts of Population Explosion

Population explosion stresses resources, environment, urban areas, health, education, employment, and social stability. Example: Delhi air pollution, Mumbai slums, water scarcity in Chennai, and COVID-19 urban vulnerability.

5.3 Positive Implications

Large labor force, vast market, and cultural diversity boost economic and social growth. Example: India’s IT, healthcare, FMCG, and cultural sectors thrive due to population scale.

5.4 Managing Population Challenges

Family planning, women empowerment, health infrastructure, urban planning, and effective governance are key. Example: State-specific schemes in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar address high fertility clusters.