Climate Change: Definition and Natural Causes
Climate change refers to long-term alterations in temperature, rainfall, wind patterns, and other climate parameters occurring over decades or longer. Earth’s climate has changed naturally over millions of years due to astronomical, geological, and atmospheric processes, shaping ecosystems and biodiversity. Understanding natural climate drivers helps distinguish between natural variability and human-induced warming.
Meaning
Climate change is the long-term shift in climate averages—temperature, precipitation, or storm frequency—over decades to millions of years. It includes both natural variations and human-induced changes, though this note focuses only on natural drivers.
Key Points
• Long-term climatic shift
• Includes temperature & rainfall changes
• Explained by natural and human factors
• Current note: focuses on natural causes
• Recognized by IPCC & global scientific bodies
Natural climate change arises from astronomical cycles, tectonics, volcanic activity, and natural greenhouse gas fluctuations.
3.1 Solar Variations
Fluctuations in solar output affect Earth’s temperature. Sunspot cycles and irradiance changes contribute to natural warming and cooling phases over centuries.
3.2 Volcanic Activity
Explosive volcanoes cool the planet by releasing aerosols that reflect sunlight, while long-term volcanic CO₂ emissions contribute to warming over geological timescales.
3.3 Plate Tectonics
Movement of continents alters ocean circulation, mountain building, and volcanic activity, reshaping climate over millions of years.
3.4 Orbital Variations
Milankovitch cycles—eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession—modify solar energy distribution, driving glacial and interglacial periods.
3.5 Natural Greenhouse Gas Fluctuations
Natural processes such as respiration, ocean exchange, and decomposition alter CO₂ and methane levels, influencing warming or cooling trends.
Climate change is shaped by solar variations, volcanic activity, tectonics, orbital changes, and natural greenhouse gas fluctuations. While natural processes have always influenced Earth’s climate, the rapid warming observed today is driven largely by human activities. Understanding natural causes provides essential context for climate science, policy, and adaptation planning.
Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is a natural atmospheric mechanism that traps part of Earth’s outgoing heat, maintaining temperatures suitable for life and supporting stable climatic conditions across ecosystems and seasons.
Heat Absorption & Re-Emission
Solar energy reaches Earth, where the surface absorbs part of it and re-emits heat as infrared radiation, which greenhouse gases partially trap and redirect back toward the surface.
Atmospheric Heat Retention
Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide trap infrared radiation, forming an insulating blanket that maintains Earth’s thermal balance.
Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would cool rapidly, making it uninhabitable and drastically altering climate stability.
Sources of Major Gases
CO₂ arises from fossil fuel burning, methane from agriculture and waste, and nitrous oxide from fertilizers and industrial processes.
Heat Absorbing Capacity
These gases absorb infrared radiation efficiently, increasing heat retention and intensifying the natural greenhouse effect.
Natural Effect
Maintains Earth's habitable temperature. Without it, Earth would be 33°C colder with frozen oceans.
Enhanced Effect
Human activities amplify heat trapping, causing abnormal warming and accelerating climatic disturbances.
Global warming is the long-term rise in Earth’s average surface temperature due to increased greenhouse gas concentrations, especially since industrialization.
Major Emission Sources
Fossil fuel burning, deforestation, agriculture, livestock, landfills, fertilizers, and industrial chemicals increase atmospheric greenhouse gases.
Atmospheric Alteration
Human actions enhance heat retention by modifying atmospheric chemical composition.
Sea Level Rise
Melting glaciers and thermal expansion of oceans threaten coastal populations and ecosystems.
Extreme Climate Stress
Heatwaves, droughts, altered rainfall, and reduced freshwater availability impact agriculture, health, and food security.
Biodiversity Loss
Rapid temperature shifts disrupt species survival, migration, habitats, and ecological balance.
Albedo Reduction
Melting ice reduces Earth's reflectivity, causing oceans to absorb more heat and worsen warming.
Permafrost Methane Release
Thawing frozen soil releases trapped methane, strongly amplifying the greenhouse effect.
Renewable energy expansion, reforestation, sustainable agriculture, efficient transport, and cleaner industries reduce emissions. Strong climate policies, technology adoption, and global cooperation are essential to build resilient societies capable of facing future climate risks.
Acid Rain
Acid rain refers to precipitation with abnormally low pH formed when sulphur and nitrogen oxides react in the atmosphere and fall as acidic rain, fog, or snow. It is a transboundary environmental issue where pollutants travel long distances and deposit far from their original source.
Power Plants & Industries
Burning coal in thermal plants and industrial processes releases SO₂ and NOx, which react in the atmosphere forming acidic aerosols responsible for acid rain.
Vehicular Emissions & Natural Sources
Transport emissions contribute large volumes of NOx, while volcanic eruptions and lightning release sulphur and nitrogen compounds, though on a smaller scale.
Pollutants can travel hundreds of kilometres, causing acid deposition even in regions with minimal local emissions.
Aquatic Ecosystems
Acidification of lakes and rivers harms sensitive fish species, disrupts nutrient cycling, and alters freshwater biodiversity.
Forest & Soil Degradation
Acid rain leaches essential nutrients from soil, weakens tree roots, and increases vulnerability to pests and drought.
Agriculture
Acidic deposition reduces soil fertility and affects crop productivity, especially in regions with fragile topsoil layers.
Cultural Heritage Damage
Acid rain corrodes monuments, marble structures, and metals, accelerating deterioration of culturally significant heritage sites.
Human Health
Airborne acidic aerosols worsen respiratory illnesses, especially in dense urban-industrial regions.
Fisheries & Livelihoods
Declining fish populations in acidified waters reduce income and food security for dependent communities.
Agricultural Costs
Increased soil degradation raises input costs and reduces incomes, disproportionately affecting marginal farmers.
Tourism & Heritage Losses
Corrosion of monuments increases restoration costs and reduces tourism revenues.
Cleaner Energy Transition
Shifting to natural gas, renewables, and desulphurised coal reduces SO₂ and NOx emissions at source.
Pollution Control Technology
FGD units, catalytic converters, and low-NOx burners reduce industrial and vehicular precursor emissions.
Improved Transport Systems
Public transport, electric mobility, and strict vehicular norms reduce NOx emissions in urban centres.
Afforestation
Tree planting and ecosystem restoration stabilise soils and reduce long-term acid rain impacts.
Monitoring & Regulation
Air quality monitoring helps identify hotspots and enables targeted interventions.
NCAP & Emission Standards
NCAP and Bharat Stage norms reduce industrial and vehicular emissions contributing to acid rain formation.
FGD Mandates in Power Plants
Coal power plants are required to install flue-gas desulphurisation systems to limit SO₂ release.
Air Quality Monitoring
NAMP tracks SO₂ and NOx levels, helping assess long-term acid rain trends regionally.
Acid rain is a significant ecological and socio-economic challenge. Reducing emissions, adopting clean technologies, and strengthening regulatory frameworks are essential for mitigating its long-term impacts, protecting ecosystems, and sustaining livelihoods.
Stratospheric Ozone Layer
The ozone layer is a high-altitude stratospheric shield absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation, and its depletion represents a thinning caused primarily by human-produced chemical compounds that disrupt natural atmospheric balance.
Process of Depletion
Chlorine and bromine released from synthetic substances break down ozone molecules faster than natural regeneration, forming the “ozone hole,” especially over Antarctica due to polar stratospheric clouds.
Antarctic spring conditions intensify depletion as low temperatures enhance chemical reactions weakening ozone concentration.
CFCs
Chlorofluorocarbons used in refrigeration, aerosols, and foam products release chlorine atoms that destroy ozone through catalytic reactions.
Halons
Halons in fire extinguishers emit bromine, which destroys ozone even more efficiently than chlorine.
Industrial Solvents
Carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform, used in cleaning and industrial processes, release ozone-depleting atoms upon breakdown.
Natural Causes
Volcanic eruptions and stratospheric variations influence ozone concentration but contribute far less than human chemicals.
Human Health
Higher UV exposure increases skin cancer, cataracts, and immune suppression, especially in high-exposure regions.
Terrestrial Plants
UV-B radiation damages plant tissues, lowers photosynthesis, and affects crop productivity.
Marine Ecosystems
Phytoplankton decline disrupts ocean productivity and fisheries, affecting marine food chains.
Material Damage
Plastics, paints, and rubbers degrade faster under intense UV radiation, raising maintenance costs.
Climate Effects
Alters stratospheric temperatures and wind circulation, influencing regional climate variations.
Montreal Protocol
The world’s most successful treaty that phased out ozone-depleting substances through binding controls and global cooperation.
Alternative Technologies
Industries shift to HFCs and natural refrigerants, though some require climate-friendly regulation.
Monitoring Networks
Global atmospheric monitoring tracks chemical concentrations and supports scientific assessment.
Consumer Behaviour
Avoiding harmful aerosol products helps reduce demand for ozone-depleting substances globally.
ODS Rules
India’s Ozone Depleting Substances Rules regulate production and consumption, ensuring compliance with global standards.
Ozone Cell
The Ozone Cell coordinates national implementation, assists industries, and promotes awareness.
Successful Phase-Out
India phased out CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, and more ahead of schedule.
HCFC Phase-Out Plan
Encourages industries to adopt cleaner, climate-friendly refrigerants and technologies.
Public Awareness
Training programs and campaigns educate technicians and industries on sustainable cooling practices.
Ozone depletion remains a critical global issue, but strong global treaties, national initiatives, cleaner technologies, and public awareness are accelerating recovery. India’s proactive measures and compliance with global protocols position the nation as a committed partner in protecting the ozone layer.
Urban Heat Islands
Urban Heat Islands refer to urban areas that experience significantly higher temperatures than nearby rural zones due to dense infrastructure, reduced vegetation, and heat-retaining surfaces. Buildings, roads, and concrete structures absorb heat during the day and release it slowly at night, causing sustained warming. UHI intensity increases with city size, population density, and industrial concentration, making metropolitan regions consistently hotter across seasons.
Land-use Transformation
Rapid urbanisation replaces natural landscapes with concrete, asphalt, and built-up surfaces that absorb heat and reduce evapotranspiration. Loss of soil moisture and green cover diminishes natural cooling effects.
Dense Urban Structures
High-rise buildings and compact layouts block airflow and trap heat within urban canyons, creating stagnant warm pockets and intensifying temperature rise.
Vehicular traffic, industrial emissions, and increased air-conditioner use release waste heat into the atmosphere, further amplifying the Urban Heat Island effect.
Human Health Impacts
Higher temperatures increase heat stress, dehydration, and cardiovascular strain, particularly affecting the elderly, outdoor workers, and low-income communities.
Energy Demand & Emissions
Increased cooling requirements raise electricity consumption, causing peak load stress, outages, and higher greenhouse gas emissions from thermal power plants.
Air Pollution & Ozone Formation
UHIs intensify air pollution by promoting ground-level ozone formation, trapping particulate matter, and worsening respiratory disorders.
Reduced Night Comfort
Elevated nighttime temperatures disrupt sleep, reduce productivity, and increase heat-related discomfort in urban households.
Ecosystem Stress
Birds, insects, mammals, and aquatic species experience habitat stress as rising temperatures alter ecological balance and reduce dissolved oxygen levels in water bodies.
Urban Tree Plantation
Increasing urban green cover improves shading, enhances evapotranspiration, reduces surface temperatures, and strengthens urban climate resilience.
Cool Roofs & Reflective Surfaces
Cool roofs and reflective paints lower heat absorption, reduce cooling demand, and effectively lower ambient temperatures.
Permeable Surfaces
Permeable pavements improve water infiltration, reduce heat-holding capacity, and lower stormwater runoff.
Green Roofs & Vertical Gardens
These structures enhance biodiversity, cool indoor spaces, and help moderate heat accumulation in dense urban zones.
Climate-Smart Urban Planning
Wider roads, ventilated layouts, and open spaces improve airflow, disperse heat, and restore the urban microclimate.
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
Promotes energy-efficient buildings, urban greenery, sustainable mobility, and waste reduction to reduce heat accumulation.
Smart Cities Mission
Integrates climate-sensitive planning, cool roof technologies, urban forestry, and mobility improvements to reduce UHI intensity.
Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan
India’s first Heat Action Plan—includes early warning systems, public awareness, and cool roof implementation to reduce heat-related mortality.
Urban Cool Roofs & Plantation Drives
Cities like Hyderabad, Bhubaneswar, and Surat are adopting cool-roof programs, green corridors, and sustainable design practices.
AMRUT 2.0
Focuses on waterbody rejuvenation, green spaces, and sustainable stormwater systems—helping mitigate heat stress in cities.
Urban Heat Islands pose significant environmental and social challenges in India’s rapidly growing cities. Effective mitigation—through urban greening, cool roofs, permeable surfaces, and climate-responsive planning—combined with national missions and city-level initiatives, is essential for reducing heat stress and strengthening urban climate resilience.
Definition
Marine Heat Waves are prolonged periods of abnormally high sea-surface temperatures over large ocean regions. They disrupt marine ecosystems and significantly alter ocean–atmosphere interactions.
Concept
Marine Heat Waves are extreme ocean-warming events lasting days to months. They are defined relative to local temperature thresholds and often emerge from persistent atmospheric or oceanic anomalies.
Characteristics
They differ from normal warming as temperatures remain elevated beyond natural variability, threatening ecological stability and marine productivity across trophic levels.
MHWs push marine ecosystems beyond their adaptive capacity, resulting in widespread ecological disruption.
a. Weak Ocean Mixing
Climate-induced stratification traps heat near the surface, preventing deeper ocean mixing.
b. Persistent High-Pressure Systems
Reduced cloud cover and weakened winds enhance solar heating and prevent heat loss.
c. Large-Scale Climate Phenomena
El Niño, IOD, and PDO amplify ocean warming, triggering basin-wide marine heat events.
a. Coral Bleaching
Heat stress expels symbiotic algae, reducing reef resilience and biodiversity.
b. Plankton & Productivity Loss
Disrupted nutrient cycles reduce primary productivity, affecting fish stocks.
c. Species Migration
Marine species shift toward cooler waters, creating ecological imbalances.
d. Loss of Seagrass & Kelp
Mass die-offs reduce blue-carbon storage and weaken coastal protection.
e. Harmful Algal Blooms
Warmer, stratified waters boost harmful algal blooms affecting fisheries and tourism.
a. Reduced Fish Catch
Temperature-sensitive species decline, impacting small-scale fishing communities.
b. Tourism Loss
Coral degradation and declining marine health reduce tourism revenues.
c. Global Seafood Risks
Reduced marine productivity threatens food security and increases market prices.
a. Emission Reduction
Lowering greenhouse gases slows ocean warming and reduces MHW severity.
b. Enhanced Monitoring
Satellites, ocean buoys, and gliders help detect early warming signals.
c. Marine Protected Areas
Adaptive management and conservation allow natural ecosystem recovery.
d. Blue Carbon Restoration
Mangroves, seagrass, and salt marsh restoration boosts carbon storage and resilience.
a. INCOIS Forecasting
INCOIS provides high-resolution MHW forecasts supporting fisheries and coastal planning.
b. NCCR Reef Monitoring
NCCR tracks coral bleaching and maps vulnerability in Lakshadweep, Andaman, and Gulf of Mannar.
c. ICZM Programme
Enhances coastal restoration and strengthens community adaptation to warming oceans.
d. International Collaboration
India contributes to the UN Decade of Ocean Science, enhancing early-warning systems and research.
Marine Heat Waves pose severe threats to marine ecosystems, fisheries, and coastal economies. Effective monitoring, emission reduction, ecosystem restoration, and strong governance are essential to mitigate their impacts, particularly for climate-vulnerable regions like India.
Sea Level Rise & Extreme Events
Sea level rise refers to the long-term increase in average ocean levels caused by warming-induced expansion of seawater and melting of land-based ice. It reshapes coastlines, increases tidal reach, and heightens vulnerability of coastal ecosystems and communities. Extreme events include sudden, high-impact climatic occurrences such as cyclones, floods, heatwaves, and storm surges, driven by intensified atmospheric and oceanic energy imbalances.
Climate-induced Drivers
Global temperature rise warms oceans, causing thermal expansion. Accelerated melting of glaciers, ice caps, and polar sheets adds large volumes of freshwater to oceans, driving long-term sea-level rise.
Human & Geophysical Contributors
• Land subsidence from groundwater extraction and rapid urbanisation increases relative sea-level rise.
• Extreme events intensify due to strengthened heat-energy exchange between oceans and atmosphere, producing stronger cyclones and erratic rainfall.
Both natural warming processes and human-induced pressures accelerate sea-level rise and the frequency of extreme climate events.
Coastal Inundation
Rising seas inundate settlements, threaten critical infrastructure, erode shorelines, and displace populations dependent on coastal ecosystems.
Freshwater & Ecosystem Decline
Saltwater intrusion reduces freshwater availability and harms agriculture. Loss of mangroves, wetlands, and coral reefs weakens natural coastal buffers.
Cyclones & Storm Surges
Warmer oceans intensify cyclones, damaging housing, infrastructure, agriculture, and fisheries across vulnerable coastal zones.
Extreme Rainfall & Flooding
Intense rainfall triggers floods, landslides, and urban waterlogging, disrupting mobility, public services, and emergency response.
Heatwaves & Health Risks
Heatwaves increase mortality, strain power systems, lower productivity, and create severe public-health challenges.
Emission Reduction
Mitigation requires deep cuts in greenhouse-gas emissions through renewable energy, electric mobility, and energy-efficient technologies.
Ecosystem Restoration
Restoring mangroves, wetlands, and coastal vegetation strengthens natural defences and stabilises vulnerable coastlines.
Coastal Zone Management
Hazard mapping, setback zones, and controlled development help reduce long-term exposure to coastal risks.
Climate-Resilient Infrastructure
Elevated roads, cyclone-resistant buildings, and improved drainage reduce vulnerability to climatic extremes.
Early Warning & Preparedness
Early-warning systems, forecasting, and community preparedness minimise casualties and asset losses.
Nature-Based Solutions
Coral restoration, dune stabilisation, and living shorelines build flexible, resilient coastal defence systems.
NAPCC
The National Action Plan on Climate Change promotes low-carbon growth, coastal resilience, and adaptive capacity.
National Coastal Zone Management Programme
Enhances shoreline protection through hazard mapping, restoration, and regulated development.
ICZM Projects
Projects in Odisha, Gujarat, and West Bengal focus on mangrove regeneration and cyclone-resilient community infrastructure.
NCRMP
The National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project builds shelters, strengthens embankments, and improves early-warning systems.
Sagarmala Programme
Incorporates climate-resilient port infrastructure and disaster-prepared planning to ensure long-term sustainability.
DM Act & State Action Plans
The DM Act and NDMA guidelines enable multi-hazard preparedness, while state plans integrate vulnerability assessments and adaptation strategies.
Sea level rise and extreme events pose significant ecological, social and economic risks. Strengthening coastal resilience, reducing emissions, restoring ecosystems, and enhancing preparedness are essential to safeguard vulnerable communities and ensure long-term climate security.
Overview
Climate change is reshaping India’s environmental stability, agriculture, water security, and coastal resilience. Rising temperatures, extreme weather, melting glaciers, and increasing sea levels severely affect ecosystems, livelihoods, and national development priorities.
Irratic Monsoon Behaviour
India now experiences delayed monsoon onset, shorter but intense rainfall bursts, and extended dry spells, disrupting agriculture, water availability, and climate-sensitive livelihoods across multiple regions.
Urban Flooding Increase
Extreme rainfall episodes now frequently paralyze cities like Mumbai, Chennai, and Bengaluru by overwhelming drainage systems, damaging infrastructure, and exposing gaps in urban planning.
Himalayan regions are witnessing a shift from snow to rain, speeding glacial melt and intensifying landslides and flash floods, such as the 2021 Uttarakhand tragedy.
Declining Crop Productivity
Heat-sensitive crops like wheat and pulses suffer declining yields as rising temperatures push them beyond tolerance thresholds.
Monsoon Variability Effects
Regions like Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Karnataka experience frequent crop losses from erratic rainfall, leading to debt, migration, and livelihood instability.
Pest & Disease Spread
Warmer conditions accelerate outbreaks such as fall armyworm in maize, worsening supply chain vulnerabilities.
Glacial Retreat
Rapid Himalayan glacier melt threatens long-term water flow in major rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra.
Seasonal Water Imbalances
Intense monsoon flooding contrasts sharply with summer water scarcity, affecting drinking water and hydropower.
Groundwater Stress
Erratic rainfall pushes farmers to over-extract groundwater, worsening aquifer depletion in Punjab and Haryana.
Rising Energy Demand
Increasing temperatures raise electricity demand for cooling, while thermal plants struggle with water shortages.
Hydropower Challenges
Reduced river flow, higher sedimentation, and more frequent landslides weaken hydropower stability in the Himalayas.
Coastal energy infrastructure—like ports, refineries, and power stations—faces rising cyclone-related risks, seen in Fani and Tauktae.
Sea-Level Rise
Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata face higher flood risk and saltwater intrusion affecting coastal settlements and infrastructure.
Cyclone Intensification
Odisha and Andhra Pradesh repeatedly face stronger cyclones from the Bay of Bengal, causing destruction and displacement.
Mangrove Loss
The Sundarbans face rising salinity, reducing mangrove cover and weakening natural protection against storms.
Heatwave Intensity
Delhi and Ahmedabad now experience prolonged heatwaves exceeding human tolerance levels, increasing heat-related illnesses.
Vector-Borne Diseases
Dengue and malaria spread faster due to favourable breeding conditions and expanding climatic suitability zones.
Rising Air Pollution
Warmer temperatures worsen ozone levels and particulate matter, harming respiratory health in major cities.
Climate change poses a multidimensional threat to India's environment, agriculture, water systems, energy infrastructure, health, and coastal regions. Addressing these challenges requires resilient policies, sustainable urban planning, climate-smart agriculture, and robust disaster preparedness.
Overview
India and the world are accelerating climate action through policy instruments, sustainability standards, and carbon markets. These initiatives influence rainfall patterns, agricultural resilience, and energy security as climate risks intensify across sectors.
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
The NAPCC integrates eight missions promoting clean energy, sustainable habitats, and water conservation. It strengthens India’s adaptive capacity under rising climate vulnerabilities.
Example: The Solar Mission reduces coal dependence and moderates greenhouse emissions, helping stabilise erratic rainfall patterns across monsoon-fed regions.
GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment)
GRIHA promotes low-carbon construction and energy-efficient buildings, reducing urban heat emissions and peak electricity load.
Example: GRIHA-rated buildings in Delhi show reduced cooling demands, improving resilience during heatwaves and monsoon irregularities.
The BSE Greenex and India’s carbon market further encourage industries to adopt cleaner technologies and reduce emissions while enhancing investor confidence and energy resilience.
Earth Summit & Agenda 21
Provided a global roadmap for sustainable development, encouraging nations to integrate environmental protection into growth strategies.
Example: Inspired watershed and afforestation programmes in India that stabilise rainfall and reduce soil erosion.
Kyoto Protocol & Carbon Trading
Institutionalised emission reduction and global carbon markets through Clean Development Mechanism projects.
Example: CDM projects helped India expand renewables and adopt energy-efficient technologies, reducing pollution that affects monsoon cycles.
Paris Agreement
Strengthened global ambition to limit temperature rise through NDCs, promoting renewable energy and climate-resilient agriculture.
Example: India’s NDC-driven solar parks stabilise energy supply during storms and promote climate-smart farming.
Global Carbon Markets & Border Adjustments
New carbon-pricing tools shape international trade, compelling industries to reduce carbon intensity.
Example: EU carbon border rules push Indian manufacturers to adopt cleaner production, improving climate stability.
Impact on Rainfall Patterns
Climate initiatives help regulate monsoons by reducing aerosols and restoring ecosystems.
Example: Afforestation reduces rainfall variability and lowers flash-flood risks in Himalayan and Ghats regions.
Impact on Agriculture
Promotes resilient crops, micro-irrigation, and sustainable land practices under erratic rainfall and drought conditions.
Example: Drip irrigation supported by global funds ensures stable yields even during delayed monsoons.
Impact on Energy Security
Clean energy transitions reduce fossil-fuel imports and strengthen energy autonomy during climate-stressed periods.
Example: Solar parks offer stable supply during heatwaves when thermal plants face cooling-water shortages.
Climate initiatives in India and globally drive sustainable development, stabilise rainfall, strengthen agriculture, and secure long-term energy needs. As climate risks escalate, these policies remain vital for resilience across sectors.
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